The Fur Trade and Historical Archaeology - A Bibliography

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The Fur Trade and Historical Archaeology - A Bibliography


- Part 1

This is from the Colorado State Muzzle Loading Association Journal - "POKE & STROKE".

No joke, it is really called this. We were not responsible for the name; those guys are long gone. Thanks to Jan Manning & Michael McCormick for their endless work in producing this information, hell they were the only two that could use a typewriter back in those days. I serviced as Editor, President, Vice President, Treasurer, Membership guys (have been in every officer’s chair in 12 plus years of service), when someone said "I can help" that was always a surprise as in this case.


The Fur Trade and Historical Archaeology - A Bibliography

Addington, J. Steven (1976)
Building Sequences at the Quartermaster Depot, Vancouver Barracks from 1849 to 1900. Reports in Highway Archaeology 3:278-301. Seattle.

Albinson, E. Dewey, and Alvan C. Eastman (1922)
Site of Fort Charlotte, August 10, 1922. Map on file, Minnesota Historical Society Archives, St. Paul.

Anderson, Dean L. (1991)
Variability in Trade at Eighteenth-Century French Outposts. In French Colonial Archaeology: The Illinois Country and The Western Great Lakes. Edited by John A Walthall, pp. 218-236. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Anderson, Harry H. (1961)
The Fort Lookout Trading Post Sites - A Reexamination. Plains Anthropologist 6(14):221-229.

Anderson, Thomas M. (1904)
Vancouver Barracks--Past and Present. Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 25:69-78, 267-279.

Andrews, Elizabeth Mary (1924)
Fort Spokane and Spokane House. Master's Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.

Anonymous (1904)
Old Hudson Bay Fort Colvile; History of a Famous and Ancient Stevens County Landmark. Seattle Post Intelligencier 46(6):6, 20 November 1904.

Armour, David A. (1966)
Made in Mackinac: Crafts at Fort Michilmackinac. Mackinac History Leaflet 8. Mackinac Island State Park Commission. Mackinac Island, Michigan.

Babcock, Willoughby M. (1940)
Rebuilding the Grand Portage Stockade: Some Problems in Historical Reconstruction. Museum News 18(1):6-8.

(1941) Grand Portage Rises Again. The Beaver 272:52-55.

Bachelder, John (1859)
Investigation of a Trading Post on Manomet River. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 3(1855-1858):252-256.

Ball, John (1963)
Ghosts at Old Fort Atkinson. Real West 6(3):30-33.

Barbeau, Marius, and Clifford Wilson (1944)
Tobacco and The Fur Trade. The Beaver 724 (March):36-39.

Barka, Norman F. (1976)
Archaeology and the Fur Trade: The Excavation of Sturgeon Fort, Saskatchewan. Parks Canada, History and Archaeology No. 7. Ottawa.

Barka, Norman F., and Anne Barka (1976)
Archaeology and the Fur Trade: The Excavation of Sturgeon Fort, Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, Annual Report Fiscal Year ended March 31, 1963 (Department Natural Resources), Regina, 1964, p.3-4.

Barnett, W. Anthony and Paul J. F. Schumacher (1967)
An Analysis of The Archeological excavations by the U. S. Forest Service at Old Sitka, Sitka, Alaska, in 1934-1935. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

Belden, A. L. (1917)
The Fur Trade of America. New York, Peltries Publishing Co.

Bell, James W. (1991)
Report of the Remote Sensing Survey at Fort Vancouver National Historic Site. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver, WA.

Birk, Douglas (1994)
When Rivers Were Roads; Deciphehring the Role of Canoe Portages in the Western Lake Superior Fur Trade. IN: The Fur Trade Revisited, edited by J.S.H. Brown, W.J. Eccles, and D.P. Heldman, pp.359-376. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing.

Blee, Catherine Holder (1985)
Archeological Investigations at the Russian Bishop's House, 1981, Sitka National Historical Park, Sitka, Alaska. United States Government Printing Office, Denver.

(1989) Siberian Goats and North American Deer: A Contextual Approach to the Translation of Russian

Common Names for Alaskan Mammals. Arctic 42(3): 227-231.

(1990) The Archeology of a Russian Hospital Trash Pit. In Proceedings of the Second International Russian American Conference, Sitka, Alaska, 1989. edited by Robert Pierce. Limestone Press.

Blee, Catherine Holder, Marianne Musitelli, Linda J. Scott, D. Kate Aasen, and Stephen A. Chomko (1986)
Wine, Yaman and Stone: The Archeology of a Russian Hospital Trash Pit, Sitka National Historical Park, Sitka, Alaska. US Government Printing Office.

Brauner, David R. (1995)
AArchaeological Assessment of the 1844 to 1860 Carpenter Shop Site at Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Clark County, Washington. Report to National Park Service, Seattle from Department of Anthropology, Oregon State University, Corvallis.

Brittingham, Joseph B. and Alvin Warren Brittingham, Sr. (1947)
The First Trading Post at Kicotan (Kecoughtan), Hampton, Virginia. Hampton: The Franklin Printing Co.

Brown, Jennifer (1976)
A Demographic Transition in the Fur Trade Country: Family Sizes and Fertility of Company Officers and Country Wives, ca. 1759-1850. Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6:66-71.

(1980) Strangers in Blood, Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver.

Brown, Jennifer, W. Eccles, and D. Heldman (editors) (1994)
The Fur Trade Revisited: Selected Papers of the Sixth North American Fur Trade Conference, Mackinac Island, Michigan, 1991. East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, Mackinac Island State Park Commission.

Brown, Ralph D. (1937a)
Journal of Grand Portage Excavations, 1937. Ms. on file, Minnesota Historical Society Archives, St. Paul.

(1937b) Revised Report of the Archaeological Work on the Site of the North West Company Post, 1936-1937. Ms. of file, Minnesota Historical Society Archives, St. Paul.

(1937c) Archaeological Excavations at Grand Portage, Minnesota, 1936-1937. Map on file, Minnesota Historical Society Archives, St. Paul.

(1937d) Archaeological Instigation of the Northwest Company's Post, Grand Portage, Cook Co., Minnesota, 1936. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indians at Work May:38-43. Washington.

Brown, W. C. (1914)
Old Fort Okanogan and the Okanogan Trail. Oregon Historical Quarterly 15(1):

Brumbach, Hetty Jo (1985)
The Recent Fur Trade In Northwestern Saskatchewan. Historical Archaeology 19(2):19-39.

Brumbach, Hetty Jo, Robert Jarvenpa, and Clifford Buell (1982)
An Ethnoarchaeological Approach to Chipewyan Adaptations in the Late Fur Trade Period. Artic Antrhopology 19(1):1-49.

Butler, Leonard R. (1954)
An Analysis of the Artifacts from Fort Okanogan, 1952. In Excavations at Two Fort Okanogan Sites, 1952 by Louis R. Caywood, pp. 21-36. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

Burley, David V. (1989) Function, Meaning and Context: Ambiguities in Ceramic Use by the Hivernant Metis of the Northwestern Plains. Historical Archaeology 23(1):97-106.

Burley, D., G. Horsfall and J. Brandon. (1992)
Structural Considerations of Metis Ethnicity: An Archaeological, Architectural, and Historical Study. University of South Dakota Press, Vermillion.

Burley, D., J. Scott Hamilton, and Knut R. Fladmark (1996)
Prophecy of the Swan: The Upper Peace River Fur Trade of 1794-1823. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver.

Calabrese, F. A. (1981)
1980 Center Archeological Investigations at the Fort Charlotte Complex, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota. Memorandum [H2215 (MWAC)] to Superintendent, Grand Portage National Monument, dated September 22, 1981.

Caldwell, Warren W. and G. Hubert Smith (1936)
Check List: British Indian Trade Clay Pipes. Arrow Points 21(5-6):47-49.

Campbell, Marjorie Wilkins (1957)
The North West Company. New York, St. Martins Press

Campbell, J. Duncan (1965)
Military Buttons, Long-lost Heralds of Fort Mackinac's Past. Leaflet No. 7. Mackinac Island: Mackinac Island State Park Commission.

Carley, Caroline D. (1979)r>Historical and Archaeological Evidence of Nineteenth Century Fever Epidemics and Medicine at Hudson's Bay Company's Fort Vancouver. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1981) Historical and Archaeological Evidence of 19th Century Fever Epidemics at Hudson's Bay Company's Fort Vancouver. Historical Archaeology, 15(1):19-35.

(1982) HBC Kanaka Village/Vancouver Barracks, 1977. University of Washington, Reports in Highway Archaeology, No. 8. Seattle.

Carlson, Gale F. (1979)
Archeological Investigations at Fort Atkinson (25 WN 9), Washington County, Nebraska 1956-1971. Nebraska State Historical Society Publications in Anthropology 8. Lincoln.

Caywood, Louis R. (1947)
Exploratory Excavations at Fort Vancouver. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

(1948) The Archaeological Excavation of Fort Vancouver. Oregon Historical Quarterly, 49(2):99-116.

(1948) Excavating Fort Vancouver. The Beaver, 278(# March):4-7.

(1948) The Exploratory Excavations of Fort Clatsop. Oregon Historical Quarterly 49(3):205-10.

(1949) Excavations at Fort Vancouver, 1948. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

(1951) Exploratory Excavations at Fort Spokane, 1950. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

(1952) Archeological Excavations at Fort Spokane, 1951. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

(1952) Excavations at Fort Vancouver, 1950 Season. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

(1954) Archeological Excavations at Fort Spokane, 1951, 1952 and 1953. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

(1954) Excavations at Two Fort Okanogan Sites, 1952. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

(1955) Final Report, Fort Vancouver Excavations. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

(1956) Spokane House. The Beaver 287(3):44-47.

(1967) Post-1800 Sites: Fur Trade. u> Historical Archaeology, 1:46-48.

Caywood, Louis R. and Leonard R. Butler (1954)
Excavations at Two Fort Okanogan Sites, 1952 [Appendix]. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

Chance, David H. (1972)
Fort Colvile: The Structure of a Hudson's Bay Company Post, 1825 to 1871 and After. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1972) Fort Colvile: The Structure of a Hudson's Bay Company Post, 1825 to 1871 and After. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series,, No. 4. Moscow.

(1973) Influences of the Hudson's Bay Company on the Native Cultures of the Colvile District. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes, Memoir No. 2. Moscow.

(1973) Spalding Mission Archaeological Project: Progress Report--15 October, 1973. Report to National Park Service, Seattle from Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1976) Archaeology Turns Up Another Fort. Clark County History, 1976:4-20.

(1977) Kettle Falls: 1976, Salvage Archaeology in Lake Roosevelt. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series, No. 39. Moscow.

(1978) Archaeological Tests and Excavations at the Agency Office Area, Spalding, Idaho: A Summary of Work of July and August 1978. Report to National Park Service, Seattle from Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1979) Kettle Falls: 1977, Salvage Archaeology in and Beside Lake Roosevelt. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series, No. 53. Moscow.

(1982) Kettle Falls: 1971 and 1974, Salvage Archaeology in Lake Roosevelt. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series, No. 69. Moscow.

(1984) Fort Lapwai Blacksmith Shop. Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Letter Report, No. 84-10. Moscow.

Chance, David H. (editor) (1982)br>Kanaka Village/Vancouver Barracks 1975. University of Washington, Reports in Highway Archaeology No. 7. Seattle.

Chance, David H., and Jennifer V. Chance (1976)
Kanaka Village/Fort Vancouver Barracks - 1974. Reports in Highway Archaeology No. 3. Office of Public Archaeology, University of Washington, Seattle.

Christianson, D. (1982)
Gunspalls from Hudson's Bay Comapny New Severn Post (1685-1690). Ontario Archaeology 37:35-40.

Clark, Jane E. and William H. Clark (1969)
Trade Beads from Eastern Oregon with Notes on a Gem Triangle. Screenings 18(11).

Cleland, Charles E. (1963)
A Comparison of the Faunal Remains from Refuse Pits of the French and British Occupations of Fort Michilimackinac, Emmet County, Michigan. Ms., Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Lansing, MI.

(1970) Comparison of the Faunal Remains from French and British Refuse Pits at Fort Michilimackinac: A Study in Changing Subsistence Patterns. Canadian Historical Society 3:8-23.

Collins, Lloyd R. (1949)
European Trade Materials of Site 45-BN-3 Berrian's Island, Washington. Ms., Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene.

Combes, John D. (1964)
Excavations at Spokane House-Fort Spokane Historic Site, 1962-1963. Washington State University, Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations, No. 29. Pullman.

(1965) A Preliminary Investigation at Old Military Fort Spokane, Washington. Washington State University, Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations No. 30. Pullman.

(1966) A Report of the Fort Vancouver Archaeological Excavations of the North Wall. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

Conger, Roger N. (1953)
Iron Trade Hatchets in Central Texas: Report of a Find in Stephens Country, Texas. Central Texas Archeology 6:86-87.

Conner, Barry (1987)

(1987) Colonial Trade Guns. The Fur Press, Chadron, Nebraska. (2004) Success in the North American Fur Trade. Blanket Series Press. (2004) Royal Saskatchewan Museum book listing. (2004) The Colonial Society Journal. (2006) United States Library of Congress book listing.

Cowles, Ernest (1957) Northwest Guns. Screenings 6(5).

(1960) Trade Guns. Screenings 9(2).

Curot, Michel (1911)
A Wisconsin Fur-Trader's Journal 1803-04. Wisconsin Historical Collections 20:396-471.

Dawson, K. C. A. (1969)
Archaeological Investigations at the Site of Longlac Historic Trading Post, Thunder Bay District, Ontario. Ontario Archaeology 12:3-61.

De Baillou, Clemens (1954) The White House in Augusta. Early Georgia 1(3):10-13.

Drumm, Stella (editor) (1920)
Journal of a Fur-Trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri . Missouri Historical Society.

Dunnell, Robert C. (1979)
A Note on Archaeological Sites Mentioned by Lewis and Clark in the North Bonneville Area, Washington. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13(2):201-207.

Elliot, Jack (1971)
Hivernant Archaeology in the Cypress Hills. M.A. Thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary.

(1972) Tobacco Pipes Among the Hivernant Hide Hunters: A.D. 1860-1870.The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 3(1):46-57.

Ewen, Charles R. (1986)
Fur Trade Archaeology: A Study of Frontier Heiarchies. Historical Archaeology 20(1):15-27.

Ewers, John C. (1954)
Indian Trade of the Upper Missouri before Lewis and Clark: An Interpretation. Missouri Historical Society Bulletin 10(4):430-432.

Faulkner, Alaric (1986)
Maintenance and Fabrication at Fort Pentagonet 1635-1654 Products of an Acadian Armorer's Workshop. Historical Archaeology 20(1):63-94.

Fenstermaker, Gerald B. (1976)
First Northwest Coast Colored Trade Bead Chart. Archaeological Research Booklet No. 6. Lancaster.

(1976) Northwest Colored Trade Bead Chart, No. 2. Archaeological Research Booklet No. 9. Lancaster.

Ferguson, Linda L., (Sprague) (1975)
Hudson's Bay Company Bellevue Farm. Artifact Summary 1973 Season, San Juan Island, Washington. In "Miscellaneous San Juan Island Reports 1971-1973." pp. 175-221. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series 16. Moscow.

Fielder, George F., Jr. and Roderick Sprague (1974)
The Test Excavations at the Coeur d'Alene Mission of the Sacred Heart, Cataldo, Idaho, 1973. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series No. 13. Moscow.

Flaskerd, George A. (1940)
Minnesota Silver Trade Articles. Minnesota Archaeologist 139-140.

Freestone, James B. (1974)
Trade Beads of the Northwest. Desert Magazine 37(3):12-15, 36-39.

French, Diana E. (1975)
Description of Eight Glass Beads from the Nakina River, Northwest B. C. Ms., Archaeological Sites Advisory Board of British Columbia, Victoria.

Gall, Patricia (1967)
The Excavation of Fort Pic, Ontario. Ontario Archaeological Society Publication No. 10:35-63.

Garth, Thomas R. (1951)
Archeological Excavations at Fort Walla Walla. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver.

(1952) Archaeological Excavations at Fort Walla Walla. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 43(1):27-50.

George, Robert F. (1943)
Indian Trade Silver Ornaments. Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (Jan.):83-91.

Gibson, Edmond P., Donald Peru, and Ruth Herrick (1960)
The DeMarsac Trading Post Site. Michigan Archaeologist 6(3):42-53.

Gillio, David A. (1973)
1972 Excavations at Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site, North Dakota. Ms, On file, Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, Lincoln.

Gillis, E. V. (1961)
A Progress Report on Archaeological Excavations at Fort Michilimackinac, Mackinac City, Michigan, 1961 Season. Coffinberry News Bulletin (Sept.).

Gilmore, K., and Noble, V. E. (1983)
Archaeological Testing at Fort St. Leon, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. Contributions in Archaeology, No. 2. Institute of Applied Sciences, North Texas State University Denton. Submitted to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983.

Goggin, John M. (1949)
A Florida Indian Trading Post, Circa 1763-1784. Southern Indian Studies 1:35-38.

Gooding, S. J. (1951)
H B C Trade Guns Outfit. The Beaver 282 (Dec.):30-31.

(1960) A Preliminary Study of the Trade Guns Sold By the Hudson's Bay Company. Missouri Archaeologist 22:81-95. Columbia.

Grabert, Garland F. (1964)
Interim Report on the Wells Reservoir Salvage Archeology Project - Part I, 1963. Report to National Park Service, San Francisco from Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.

(1965) Archaeological Excavations at Fort Okanogan, (45OK64), 1964; Interim Report, Part I. Report to National Park Service, San Francisco from Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.

(1965) Archaeological Excavations at Fort Okanogan, Washington; A Contribution to the Ethno-History of the Sinkiaetk. Master's thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.

(1966) Archaeology in the Wells Reservoir, 1965. Report to National Park Service, San Francisco from Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.

(1968) The Astor Fort Okanogan. University of Washington, Reports in Archaeology No. 2. Seattle.

(1973) Early Fort Okanogan Euro-American Impact on the Historic Okanogan Indians. In Historical Archaeology in Northwestern North America, Ronald M. Getty and Knut R. Fladmark, editors, pp. 109-125. Calgary: Archaeological Association.

Grange, Roger T., Jr. (1963)
Digging at Fort Kearney. Northeast History 44(2).

Gray, Marlesa A. (1978)
Structural Aspects of Fort Vancouver, 1829-1860: An Historical-Archaeological Interpretation. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

Grimm, Jacob L. (1970)
Archaeological Investigations of Fort Ligonier, 1960-1965. Annals of Carnegie Museum 42. Pittsburgh.

Hagen, Olaf T. (1936)
Report on the Preliminary Inspection of the Old Fort Vancouver Restoration Project. Ms., National Park Service, Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1939) Fort Simcoe 1856-59. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

Hamilton, Scott. (1990-91)
Western Canadian Fur Trade History and Archaeology: The Illumination of the Invisible in Fur Trade Society. Saskatchewan Archaeology 11-12:3-24.

Hamilton, Theodore. M. (1960)
Indian Trade Guns. Missouri Archaeologist (Dec.). (editor)

(1960) Some Gun Parts From 18th Century Osage Sites. The Missouri Archaeologist 22:120-149.

(1968) Early Indian Trade Guns: 1625-1775. Contributions of the Museum of the Great Plains No.3.

Lawton, Oklahoma.

(1976) Firearms on the Frontier: Guns at Fort Michilimackinac 1715-1781. Reports on Mackinac History and Archaeology 5. Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Williamston, Michigan.

(1980) Colonial Frontier Guns. The Fur Press, Chadron, Nebraska.

Hanson, Charles E., Jr. (1955)
The Northwest Gun. Lincoln: Nebraska State Historical Society.

(1989) Clay Pipes in the Fur Trade. The Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly 25:1-11.

Harper, Frank B. (n.d.)
Fort Union and Its Neighbors on the Upper Missouri. Great Northern Railway Publication.

Harrison, Brian Faris (1990)
Old Post Archaeology: Excavations at Fort Stevens 1979-1980. Department of Anthropology, Clatsop Community College, Astoria.

Herskovitz, Robert M. (1978)
Fort Bowie Material Culture. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 31. Tucson.

Hewitt, J. N. B., editor, and Myrtis Jarrel, translator. (1937)
Journal of Rudolph Frederick Kurz. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 115. Washington, D.C.

Hibbs, Jr., Charles H. (1987)
O.A.S. Volunteer Archaeological Excavations at the H.B.C. New Office Site, Fort Vancouver National Historic Site. Ms., National Park Service, Seattle.

Hoffman, John J. (1974)
Fort Vancouver Excavations VII, Northwest Bastion and Stockade System. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

Hoffman, John J. and Lester A. Ross (1972)
Fort Vancouver Excavations--I. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver.

(1972) Fort Vancouver Excavations--II. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver.

(1973) Fort Vancouver Excavations--III, 1845 Harness Shop. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver.

(1973) Fort Vancouver Excavations--IV, Chief Factor's House and Kitchen. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1973) Fort Vancouver Excavations--V, Flagstaff and Belfry. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1974) Fort Vancouver Excavations--VI, Sales Shop and Powder Magazine. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1974) Fort Vancouver Excavations--VIII, Fur Store. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1975) Fort Vancouver Excavations--IX, Indian Trade Store. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

(1976) Fort Vancouver Excavations--XIII, Structural Inventory, 1829-1860. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver.

Hopwood, Victor G., Editor (1971)
David Thompson: Travels in Western North America 1784-1812. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.

Howard, G. T. (1964)
Trade Guns of the Northwest Co. The Canadian Journal of Arms Collecting 2(3):65-74. Ottawa.

Hudson's Bay Company (1924)
Catalogue of the Hudson's Bay Company Historical Exhibit at Winnipeg. Winnipeg: Hudson's Bay Company.

Huggins, Robert, and John W. Weymouth (1979)
A Magnetic Survey of Fort Charlotte, Grand Portage National Monument. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Hurlbut, Isobel (1977)
Faunal Remian From Fort White Earth N.W. Co. (1810-1813). Provincial Museum Of Alberta, Human History Occasional Paper No. 1. Alberta Culture Historical Resources Division, Edmonton.

Hussey, John A. (1957)
The History of Fort Vancouver and Its Physical Structure. Portland: Abbott, Kerns and Bell Co.

Husted, Wilfred M. (1970)
1970 Excavations at Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site, North Dakota. Ms, Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, Lincoln.

Innis, Harold (1956)
The Fur Trade in Canada. University of Ontario Press, Totonto.

Jensen, Richard E. (1975)
Bellevue: The First Twenty Years, 1822-1842. Nebraska History 56(3):338-374.

(1998) The Fontenelle & Cabanne Trading Posts. The History and Archaeology of Two Missouri River Sites1822-1838. Nebraska State Historical Society, Lincoln.

Johnson, Eldon (1961)
Interim Report on Excavations a the Grand Portage National Monument, June 12-July 14, 1961. Ms. in possession of Alan R. Woolworth, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

Johnson, Ida Amanda (1919)
The Michigan Fur Trade. Lansing: Michigan Historical Commission.

Johnson, Jeffrey Lee (1998)
The Peltry Trade of Louisiane to 1763: A Study in Comparative Archaeology. Master's Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.

Jones, Bruce A. (1979a)
Travel to Fort Charlotte, Grand Portage National Monument, September 10-25, 1979. Memorandum [A26 (MWAC)] to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, dated October 3, 1979. On file, Midwest Archeoolgical Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1979b) Archaeological Investigations at Locations of Proposed Water Reservoir, Grand Portage National Monument. Memorandum to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, dated October 3, 1979. On file, Midwest Archeoolgical Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1980) Historic Site Archeology at Fort Charlotte, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1985) Archeological Survey and Shovel Testing at Grand Portage National Monument, September 4-7, 1985. Memorandum [A26] to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, dated October 15, 1985. On file, Midwest Archeoolgical Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Jury, Wilfrid and Elsie McLeod Jury (1956)
The Nine-Mile Portage from Kempenfeldt Bay to The Nottawasaga River. University of Western Ontario, Museum of Indian Archaeology and Pioneer Life Bulletin 11. London.

Kardas, Susan (1970)
1969 Excavations at the Kanaka Village Site, Fort Vancouver, Washington. Report to National Park Service, San Francisco from Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA.

(1971) "The People Bought This and the Clatsop Became Rich," a View of Nineteenth Century Fur Trade Relationships on the Lower Columbia between Chinookan Speakers, Whites, and Kanakas. Doctoral dissertation, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA.

Kehoe, Alice B. (1978)
Francois' House: An Early Fur Trade Post of the Saskatchewan River. Pastlog 2. Regina.

Kelly, Arthur R. (1939)
The Macon Trading Post, an Historical Foundling. American Antiquity 4(4):328-333.

Kenady, Stephen M., Susan A. Saastamo, and Roderick Sprague (1973)
Miscellaneous San Juan Island Reports 1970-1972. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series No. 7. Moscow.

Kent, Ronald J. (1982)
Report to the U.S. National Park Service, Northwest Region, On the Mitigative Archeological Testing and Assessment for the U.S. Army Bandstand Reconstruction Project at Vancouver Barracks, Vancouver, Washington. Ms., Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver, WA.

Kidd, Kenneth E. (1941)
The Excavation of Fort Ste. Marie. Canadian Historical Review.

(1949) The Excavation of Ste. Marie Island. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

(1954) Trade Goods Research Techniques. American Antiquity 20(1):1-8.

(1955) A Statistical Analysis of Trade Axes. Bulletin of the New York State Archaeological Association 5:6.

Kidd, R. S. (1970)
Fort George and the Early Fur Trade in Alberta. Publications of the Provincial Museum and Archives of Alberta 2. Edmonton.

Killy, Monroe P. (1949)
Early Forms from the Iron Trade. Minnesota Archaeologist 15(10).

Kivett, Marvin F. (1959)
Excavations at Fort Atkinson, Nebraska. A Preliminary Report. Nebraska History 40(1):39-66.

Klammer, K. K. (1949)
Little Rapids trading post. Minnesota Archaeologist 16:30-58.

Klammer, K. K. and Paul Klammer (1949)
The Little Rapids trading post. Minnesota Archaeologist 15:30.

Klimko, Olga (1983)
The Archaeology and History of Fort Pelly 1, 1824-1856. PastLog 5. Saskatchewan Culture and Recreation, Regina.

(1994) The Archaeology of Land Based Fur Trade Posts in Western Canada: A History and Critical Analysis, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver.

LaFleche, Andre (1979)
Hudson's Bay Company Suppliers, Part 3: A List of British Suppliers of Goods and Services to Hudson's Bay Company, 1820-75. Ms, On file, Parks Canada, Ottawa.

Larrabee , Edward McM. (1966)
Excavations Along the East Wall, Fort Vancouver National Historic Site. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

Larrabee, Edward McM. and Susan Kardas (1968)
Exploratory Excavations for the Kanaka Village, Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver, Washington. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver,WA.

Lavender, David (1954)
Bent's Fort. Garden City, Doubleday.

(1964) The Fist in the Wilderness. Garden City, Doubleday.

Lehmer, Donald J. (1971)
Introduction to Middle Missouri Archaeology. Anthropological Papers 1. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.

Light, John D., and Henry Unglik (1984)
A Frontier Fur Trade Blacksmith Shop 1796-1812. Studies in Archaeology, Architecture and History. Parks Canada, Ottawa.

Lombard, Percival Hall (1927)
The First Trading Post of the Plymouth Colony. Old-Time New England 18(1):70-86.

(1933) The Aptuxcet Trading Post: Its Restoration on the Original Foundations. Old-Time New England 23(4):159-174.

Lynott, Mark (1978)
Trip to Grand Portage National Monument, June 27-30, 1978. Memorandum [A26 -GRPO] to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, dated July 11, 1978. On file, Midwest Archeoolgical Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1988) Archeological Survey of a Proposed Toad Construction Locality at Grand Portage, Minnesota. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Majewski, T., and Noble, Vergil E. (In Press)
Eighteenth-Century British Ceramics on the American Colonial Frontier. Historical Archaeology.

Masich, Andrew E., Michael Bies, and Roderick Sprague (1979)
Miscellaneous San Juan Island Reports 1977-1978. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series No. 54. Moscow.

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Matsen, Ken (1966)
Trade Gun. Screenings 15(4).

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(1967) The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857. Toronto, McCelland and Stewart.

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(1975) Early Nineteenth Century Euroamerican Technology within the Columbia River Drainage. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 9(1):32-50.

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Ross, Lester A., Bryn Thomas, Charles H. Hibbs, Jr., and Caroline D. Carley (1975)
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Firearms, Traps, and Tools of the Mountain Men. Alfred A. Knoph, New York.

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The Application of a Functional Typology in the Analysis of Artifacts from the Excavation of Old Fort Colvile, Spring, 1970. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.

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(1966) European Trade Goods and the Chronology of the Fort Shantok Site. Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 34:5-38. New Haven.

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Archeological Field Notes, Fort Clatsop, Astoria, Oregon. Ms., National Park Service, San Francisco.

(1961) Archeological Field Notes, Fort Vancouver National Historic Site. Ms., National Park Service, Vancouver, WA.

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(1961) An Ethnological Analysis of David Thompson's 1809-1811 Journeys in the Lower Pend Oreille Valley, Northeast Washington. Ethnohistory 8(4):309-381.

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(1957) Archeological Salvage at Historic Sites in the Missouri Basin. Ms., Smithsonian Institution, Missouri River Basin Surveys, Lincoln.

(1960) Fort Pierre II (39 ST 217), a Historic Trading Post in the Oahe Dam Area, South Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 176; River Basin Surveys Papers 18. Washington.

(1960) Archaeological Investigations at the Site of Fort Stevenson (32 ML 1), Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 176; River Basin Surveys Papers 19. Washington.

(1968) Big Bend Historic Sites. Publications In Salvage Archaeology 9. River Basin Surveys, Smithsonian Institution. Lincoln.

(1972) Like-A-Fishhook Village and Fort Berthold, Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota. National Park Service Anthropological Papers 2. Washington.

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An Examination of the Site of Fort Hawkins in Macon, Bobb County, Georgia, with an Evaluation of the Potential for Historical Archeology, with a View toward Historic Site Development. Ms., Institute of Archeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

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Sprague, Linda Ferguson (1975)
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Sprague, Linda Ferguson, Mary Giddings, Duane Marti, and Roderick Sprague (1975)
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Sprague, Linda Ferguson and Roderick Sprague (1977)
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(1971) Review of Astor Fort Okanogan by Garland F. Grabert. American Anthropologist 73(4):934-935.

(1978) Review of Kanaka Village/Vancouver Barracks, 1974 by David H. Chance and Jennifer Chance. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 69(4):189-190.

Sprague, Roderick (editor) (1983)
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(1977) Euroamerican Artifacts in the Oregon Territory, 1829-60: A Comparative Survey. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 11(2):174-183.

(1979) The Stock of the European Sale Shop at Fort Vancouver, 1829-1860. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13(2):215-230.

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(1990) A Data Recovery Study of 45PI401, Hudson's Bay Dwellings Northwest Landing, Pierce County, Washington. Report to Weyerhaeuser Real Estate Company, Land Management Division, Tacoma from Western Heritage, Olympia.

(1991) A Data Recovery Study of 45PI405 Nisqually Village, at Northwest Landing, Pierce County, Washington. Report to Weyerhaeuser Real Estate Company, Land Management Division, Tacoma from Western Heritage, Olympia.

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(1967) Archaeology at Fort Michilmackinac. Mackinac History Leaflet 9. Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Mackinac Island, Michigan.

(1974) Fort Michilimackinac, 1715-1781. Anthropological Series 2. East Lansing.

Stout, Harriet M. (1973)
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Sussman, Lynne (1979)
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(1972) San Juan Island Historic Resource Study. Denver Service Center, National Park Service, Denver.

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Fort Ross, a Study in Historical Archaeology. Ms., Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.

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Horseshoes and Handstones: The Meeting of History and Prehistory at the Old Mission of the Sacred Heart. Idaho Yesterdays 2(2):20-27.

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Fort Michilimackinac: Dating Techniques. Ms., Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Lansing, MI.

(1962) Fort Michilimackinac: Glass and Ceramic Analysis - 1962 Season - Report No. 11. Ms., Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Lansing, Michigan.

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Clay Tobacco-Pipes from Nootka. National Historic Sites Service, Manuscript Report No. 59. Ottawa.

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Washington State's Lewis and Clark Medal. The Record (1965), pp. 41-46. Pullman.

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(1980) Trade Bells of the Southern Plateau: Their Use and Occurrence through Time. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 14(1):20-84.

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A Preliminary Study of Archaeological Relationships at the Mission of the Sacred Heart of Jesus to the Coeur d'Alene Indians. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1977) The Jesuit Reduction System Concept: Its Implications for Northwest Archaeology. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 11(2):163-173.

Wheeler, R. C., W. A., Kenyon, A. R. Woolworth, and D. A. Birk (1975)
Voices from the Rapids. Publications of the Minnesota Historical Society, Minnesota Historical Archaeology Series No. 3. Minneapolis.

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Comparative Analysis of Bead Assemblage from the Fur Trade Posts Fort Colvile and Fort Vancouver. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(1957) Report on Trade Goods. Appendix 2 to Excavations in the McNary Reservoir Basin near Umatilla, Oregon, by Douglas Osborne, pp. 225-226. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 166; River Basin Surveys Papers No. 8. Washington.

(1959) Analysis of Trade Goods. Appendix to A Comparative Cultural Analysis of an Indian Burial Site in Southeast Washington, by Roderick Sprague, pp. 98-105. Master's thesis, Washington State University, Pullman.

(1965) Indian Trade Goods. Oregon Archaeological Society Publication No. 2. Portland. Reprinted from Screenings 8(3) to 9(3).

Witthoft, John (1966)
Archaeology as a Key to the Colonial Fur Trade. Minnesota History 40(4):203-209.

Woodward, Arthur (1952)
Some Notes on Gun Flints. Military Collector and Historian 3(2):29-36.

(1958) Fort Union, New Mexico -- Guardian of the Santa Fe Trail, with Appendices. Ms., National Park Service, Sante Fe, NM.

(1959) Indian Trade Goods. Screenings 8-9.

Woodward, John A. and Herbert K. Beals (1980)
Fur Trade Symbols: A Glimpse form the Gladstone Graves. Association of Oregon Archaeologists Occasional Papers 1:99-124.

Woolworth, Alan R., and W. Raymond Wood (1960)
The Archaeology of a Small Trading Post (Kipp's Post, 32 MN 1) in the Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 176; River Basin Surveys Papers 20. Washington.

Woolworth, Alan R., and Nancy L. Woolworth (1975)
Archaeological Excavations at the North West Company's Depot, Grand Portage, Minnesota, in 1970-1971. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1982) Grand Portage National Monument: An Historical Overview and Inventory of Its Cultural Resources. 2 vols. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(1993) An Historical Study of the Grand Portage, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota. Ms. on file, National Park Service, Lincoln, Neb.


Published in the Colorado State Muzzle Loading Association’s Journals - 1973 & 1993.




Caliber and Gauge Now vs. Then

See, the words caliber and gauge are relatively modern, or at least their meanings are relatively modern. Caliber is used today in terms of the size of a bullet in a modern cartridge and the groove-to-groove diameter of a bore of a rifle (land-to-land diameter of a muzzleloading rifle). The term gauge is used as a measure of the internal diameter of a bore of a modern shotgun. These words had different meanings during the fur trade.

The word caliber is derived from the French word calibre. Calibre dates back to the earliest use of guns in France. Its original meaning is the number of balls to the French unit of weight, which at the time was livre. The English used another word for a similar measurement. They often used “bore” in reference to the number of balls to the pound, but they also wrote out “balls to the pound”.[1]

Even though the two terms were measuring pretty much the same thing, the French livre (489.5 grams) was bigger or heavier than the English pound avoirdupois (453.6 grams). In other words, a reference to a French ball 32 to the livre would be 2.6% larger in diameter and weigh 7.9 % more than an English ball 32 to the pound.

The meaning of the word gauge has always been an instrument or device for measuring the magnitude, amount, or contents of something, typically with a visual display of such information. Sometime in the 19th century it was adopted as a term to represent the internal diameter of a shotgun bore. Even though it might have been used with single and double barrel muzzleloaders in mid-19th century, it became standard practice with cartridge shotguns.

Similarly, caliber, in the modern sense, came into common use about the same time or maybe a little earlier. Samuel Colt used it to designate the nominal bore size of his cap-and-ball pistols, and it came into common usage in the US military with the adoption of the minié ball and the rifled musket.

Prior to about the middle of the 19th century, the number of balls to the pound (balls to the livre for French guns) was used in reference to the size of a gun’s bore. This goes back even further when cannons were developed, and their size was designated by the weight of the round projectile they shot such as a 6 pounder, a 12 pounder, etc.

But this was an indirect reference because balls-to-the-pound actually was a measurement of the size of a round ball that a gun shot. This may seem like a minor or even trivial distinction, but it is important.

Just keep in mind that in modern usage, gauge and caliber are measures of the internal diameter of the bore of the barrel. In the day, balls-to-the-pound was a measure of the ball diameter.

Windage

If a gun was said to “carry 28 to the pound”, it meant that it shot a round ball that had a diameter on the order of 0.550 inch. But as any modern muzzleloader shooter knows, it’s not very practical to shoot a gun with a ball whose OD is the same as the bore ID. In other words, allowance needs to be made for the patch around the ball and the buildup of fouling in the bore. This difference between the ball OD and the bore ID was called “windage”.[2] The windage varied between types of guns. It could be as small as 0.01 inch for a rifle and up to 0.05 inch for a military musket. A Northwest trade gun for the HBC that carried a ball 28 to the pound, therefore, would have a bore ID of 0.58 inch, assuming a windage of 0.03 inch.

To sum up, the modern terms of caliber and gauge is a measure of the barrel bore ID. The number of balls to the livre and balls to the pound are a measure of the ball OD. The difference between the two is called windage.

What do we know about the guns used during the fur trade?

I mentioned T. M. Hamilton and his work in another thread (What Constitutes a Trade Gun and a Trade Rifle?). His best book is Colonial Frontier Guns. This book was originally published in 1980, but unlike a lot of books from that period, it isn’t dated. Ironically, this is not necessarily due to the quality of Mr. Hamilton’s scholarly work, but due to the unintended consequences of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) that was passed in 1990. This act has effectively shut down new archeological digs and studies, so little new material has become available over what Mr. Hamilton knew about.

Colonial Frontier Guns has a number of tables that are useful to understand the arms, particularly French arms, common in the North American fur trade.

Table I in Hamilton’s book lists various values of “Balls per Livre” and their equivalent diameter in French units of the day— pouce, ligne, and point —as well as millimeter and inches. Of interest in this table are the values for 28 and 18 balls to the livre. The diameters of these balls in inches are 0.563 and 0.652, respectively.[3]

Manufacturing Tolerances

Table II in Hamilton’s book is also important because it summarizes a set of “go” and “no-go” gauges used in the 18th century by French barrel inspectors. The important point from this table is that the manufacturing tolerance in French barrels based on the gauges was 6 French points or 0.045 inch.[4] It must be remembered that barrels were essentially hand made at this time and not made to the very tight tolerances that they are today. An acceptable barrel said to carry 28 balls to the livre could have an actual bore ID from 0.577 to 0.623 inches. Based on these manufacturing tolerances, it could be said that a French gun of 28 balls to the livre had a nominal bore ID of 0.60 inches and nominal windage of 0.037 inches.

Hamilton was aware of English bore gauges, but they appear to be later than the 18th century and suggest much smaller tolerances than the French gauges represented in his Table II. Manufacturing tolerances for the British military and the Hudson Bay Company were likely in place in the 18th century, but the exact magnitude isn’t known.

S. James Gooding notes in Trade Guns of the Hudson’s Bay Company 1679-1970 that the HBC was using the terms “High East India bore” and “Low East India bore”. “‘High’ meant that the ball fit the barrel with little windage while those of ‘low’ were to be of diameter in which the ball would roll freely down the barrel.” [5] This implies that the HBC had two standards of bore diameter tolerance.

Archeological Data

The Osage tribe occupied much of present day Missouri in the 18th century. They were the dominate tribe in the region and a major trading partner for the French. They lived in semi-permanent villages. A large number of barrel fragments have been collected from three of the known Osage village sites. Bore ID measurements have been made of these barrels and were presented by Hamilton in his Table IV. The data is presented graphically here as a frequency histogram.

The mode or most frequent bore ID is 0.60 inches which corresponds to the nominal bore size of a French 28-to-the-livre gun. If one uses the tolerance ranges from the “go” and “no go” gauges, then 46% or almost half of the barrels fall within the tolerance for the 28 balls-to-the-livre barrel.

Hamilton also looked at a significant volume of data for the diameter of round balls found at archeological sites. He presented this data in his Table V in the Colonial Frontier Guns book.

Here the same data is presented in a frequency histogram, which makes it easier to visualize and interpret than in tabular form. There are several caveats related to this data that are discussed in the footnotes.[6]

An attempt was made to separate the French data from the English data, but it wasn’t helpful. The French River data overwhelmed the other data and skewed the results. It wasn’t clear from Hamilton’s discussion whether the Granite River and Basswood River sites were believed to be French or English. Therefore, the combined data is shown in the histogram.

The mode, or the most frequent value, is clearly the .55 inch ball diameter. This is the diameter of a ball 28 to the pound, which shows the distribution may be dominated by English sites.

The manufacturing tolerance of the French barrels and a theoretical tolerance for English barrels are shown on the chart relative to the range in balls sizes that could fit each barrel (assuming a windage of 0.03 inches for each). There is an overlap region from 0.55 to 0.57 inches indicating that English barrels that fell above their mean tolerance and French barrels that fell below their mean tolerance could share the same balls.

Primary Source Material

Hamilton lists, as examples of the volume of ball and shot that the French shipped to Louisiana in 1733, “20,000 livres of bullets weighing 28 to 32 to the livre…These were shipped intermingled as to size, in kegs.” Again in 1734, they shipped “20,000 livres of balls weighing from 25 to 28 to the livre [and] 30,000 livres weighing from 28 to 32 to the livre…They were shipped in kegs containing 25 to 28 balls to the livre in one category, and 28 to 32 to the livre in the other…there would be about twice as many 28-to-the-livre balls shipped…as any other sizes because the 28-to-the-livre balls were included in each lot of kegs.” [7]

The reason for this can be found in The French Trade Gun in North America by Keven Gladysz where he writes,[8]

Keven Gladysz said:
A letter addressed in approximately 1710 by Pontchartrain, French minister of Marine, to the Intendant Bégon at Rochefort, provides us with important comparative information regarding the differences between the fusil de chasse [likely corresponding to the Tulle model] and the marine musket of the period: "What we call fusils de chasse are guns whereby the gun locks and furniture are more delicately made [proportionately smaller in size] than those for the troops. The barrels are also much lighter, using less matter [iron]. The calibre is of 28 balls per livre and those for the troops are of 18 balls per livre. This means that if we wanted to use fusils de chasse for the troops, those who distribute the balls would need to give to each soldier using a fusil de chasse, balls of 28 balls per livre, and they are too light to be used with a socket bayonet. These types of guns are usually meant for Canada and Acadia."
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This indicates that 28 balls to the livre was the French standard for civilian and trade arms while 18 balls to the livre was the standard for military arms.

S. James Gooding in Trade Guns of the Hudson's Bay Company 1670-1970, thought that 28 balls to the pound was the standard size of HBC's trade guns, also. He writes:[9]

S. James Gooding said:
…In the orders issued after December 6, 1717 which would be required for shipment the following year, bore size is not found in the minutes and it appears as if a single size had become standard. There is no indication what that size was.

…it is not until the indent of 1830 that John Locke & Co. combined the name and the size: “Low India Shot, 28 [bore].”

This is somewhat confirmed by a large brass gang mould in the HBC collection. It is undoubtedly the one included in the 1797 armoures’s indent which casts 20 balls of .550 inch diameter—exactly 28 bore.

Only one record has been found which describes trade gun bore with precision. On 21 August, 1723, Richard Staunton, Governor at Fort Albany wrote:

If your honours think fit, I wish your guns may the next be better than last year’s. Mr. Myat informs me they were bad and unsizeable in their bores: I wish therefore you may be pleased to let their bores and ball to be answerable, which if with conveniency may be done will be very taking to the natives. The guns bores to be 59/100 parts of an inch.
Click to expand...

…Although I have not been able to document that it was always 28 to the pound before the purchase from Locke & Co. in 1830, it does seem that this was the standard indicated in the minutes of 1717 quoted above.
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Very little is mentioned in the literature about the bore sizes of trade guns ordered by the North West Company, the American Fur Company, and other independent traders. The North West Company had their trade guns marked just like the HBC and competed directly with them. It seems reasonable that they ordered trade guns to the same bore size standards as HBC, too.

The AFC orders quoted in the literature often lists the number of trade guns ordered by barrel length, but no indication of bore size. If this information is included in the primary source material, the authors of the reference books didn’t bother to list it in their quotes. It’s also possible that the bore size was a well-known standard and it wasn’t necessary for the fur company to state it in their orders to the gun makers just as the case with the serpent side plate.

A review of individual guns in James A. Hanson’s Firearms of the Fur Trade and Ryan R. Gale’s For Trade and Treaty indicated a wide range of bore sizes for Northwest trade guns pictured. It’s not known how these bores were measured. One common method uses a modern shotgun bore gauge like the one shown below. These can result in erroneous measurements because of muzzle wear as well as the way the muzzle was originally finished on the gun.

Guns in the 18th and early 19th century often had the bore near the muzzle relieved for about half the diameter of a ball to aid in loading. The relief in the bore allowed a patched ball to be thumb started, then rammed down the barrel with the ramrod. The type of bore gauge pictured above would be measuring the relieved and sometimes worn section of the bore and not the true bore ID.

The archeological data and the period documents are pretty clear that French trade guns were made to carry a nominal 28 balls to the livre, which had an OD of 0.563 of an inch. The French “go” and “no-go” gauges as well as the empirical archeological data show the French barrels had a nominal bore ID of 0.60 inches and nominal windage of 0.037 inches. The French trade gun bore, therefore, was a little smaller than a 20 gauge shotgun.

The Hudson’s Bay Company records suggest that 28 balls to the pound was the standard for their trade guns. This equates to a ball size of 0.550 of an inch, which agrees with the empirical archeological data for balls. Assuming a windage of about 0.03 of an inch, the standard bore ID for a Northwest trade gun was 0.58 of an inch.

Those are the nominal sizes. Since the manufacturing tolerances for the French bore ID’s were from 0.577 to 0.623 inches, actual guns could range from about 24 to almost 19 gauge or .58 to .62 caliber, using modern terms.

The HBC trade gun would have had some manufacturing tolerance, too, and likely ranged from about 26 to almost 21 gauge or .56 to .60 caliber, in modern terms.

There was some overlap in the bore sizes for the French guns and the British guns. This would allow French guns on the small side and English guns on the large size of allowed tolerances to shoot the same balls.

Hamilton pointed out that the French controlled the key waterways to much of the fur country in North America (see map below). He wrote:[10]

…the English traders had to bring their goods over the mountains by pack-train, while the French brought theirs in by boat. The English, with their broader economic base were able to undercut the French in the Mississippi Valley in selling guns, beads, and blankets; all highly profitable items on a pound for pound basis, but when it came to lead, the English, in effect, left it to the French to supply the ball and shot for the Indian’s English-made gun.

This may partially explain why the French brought in round balls that ranged from 32 to 25 per livre, a range of 0.500 to 0.585 inches in diameter. These could be shot in bores from 0.530 to 0.615 inches in diameter which covered the likely range of bore sizes in English trade guns (.56 to .60 caliber).

Summarizing

For French trade guns, the standard size was a nominal 28 balls to the livre. Expressing this in bore size and modern shotgun gauge, we get,

28 bttl = 0. 563" + .037" windage = 0.60" bore or close to modern 22 gauge

Given the manufacturing tolerances of the day, actual guns could range from 24 to almost 19 gauge or .58 to .62 caliber.

Similarly, for Hudson’s Bay Company’s Northwest trade guns (and likely other fur companies’ NW trade guns), the standard size was 28 balls to the pound. Expressing this in bore size and modern shotgun gauge, we get,

28 bttp = 0.550" + .030" windage = 0.58" bore or close to modern 24 gauge

Assuming manufacturing tolerances similar to the French, actual guns could range from 26 to almost 21 gauge or .56 to .60 caliber.

[1] T. M. Hamilton, Colonial Frontier Guns (Union City, Tennessee: Pioneer Press, 1987), 125.

[2] Ibid., 125.

[3] Ibid., 130.

[4] Ibid., 126.

[5] S. James Gooding, Trade Guns of the Hudson’s Bay Company 1670-1970 (Alexandria Bay, NY: Museum Restoration Service, 2003), 64,65.

[6] Hamilton pointed out that Michilimackinac was occupied by both the French and the English and the balls recovered reflect a mix of origin. Hamilton recognized that the balls from the French River site are an anomaly in that they are much smaller than some of the other sites. He didn’t have an explanation for this, but he thought they might be contemporaneous with the small bore barrels recovered from the Osage sites. The data from the Basswood River site has balls in the range of .54” to .55” combined in one group as was the balls in the range .56” to .57” another group and the balls in the range .58” to .60” in a single group. These are evenly spread over the individual intervals in the histogram.

[7] Hamilton, Colonial Frontier Guns, 129.

[8] Kevin Gladysz, The French Trade Gun in North America 1662-1759 (Woonsocket, RI: Mowbray Publishers, 2011), 77.

[9] Gooding, Trade Guns of the HBC, 65, 66.

[10] Hamilton, Colonial Frontier Guns, 129.



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